 Native Americans and the Preserve
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Frequently asked Questions about Indian Mounds
Answered by George Christiansen III
In this brief summary, George answers some of the most often heard
questions. George
Christiansen III, a professional archaeologist and doctoral student
at UW-Madison, is an expert on the archaeological sites of the UW-Madison
campus. As an anthropology instructor and frequent public speaker,
George has fielded hundreds of questions about Wisconsin's Indian mounds.
Who built the mounds?
There are two answers to this question depending on what exactly is
being asked.
In a general sense, Indian oral tradition and archaeological
research has confirmed that the ancient mounds found throughout Wisconsin
were built by Indian peoples. Although this may seem like common sense,
it was not long ago that some people believed that the mounds found
throughout Wisconsin were made by a vanished race of "Mound Builders" who
were thought to be any one of a number of non-Indian people including
the "Ten Lost Tribes of Israel," Vikings, Britons, Hindus
and many others. We now know this to be false and sometimes the product
of racist views. After more than 165 years of archaeological research
there has not been any evidence to suggest that anyone other than Indian
peoples built the mounds.
In a specific sense, many people desire to know what historically known
tribes built the mounds. The answer to this question is far more difficult
to answer because the mounds were built over a period of approximately
2500 years, and mounds ceased to be constructed almost 200 years before
any Euro-Americans started asking who might have built them. Inquiries
to Indian people of Wisconsin by anthropologists in the early part of
the 20th century were answered by partial and conflicting answers,
however, only the Ho-Chunk and the Iowa were able to provide any information
at all. Subsequent research by anthropologists, linguists, historians,
and archaeologists seems to indicate that the ancestors of the Ho-Chunk,
Iowas, Dakotas, Otoes, and Missouris built the mounds in Wisconsin and
surrounding areas. This, of course, is a tentative answer pending continued
research.
When were the mounds built; and what forms do mounds take?
 During the period 350 to 2800 years ago, Indian peoples of the Midwest
built at least 15,000 earthen mounds in a variety of shapes and sizes.
The most commonly found shapes are hemispherical (sometimes called conical),
ovate (shaped like an egg or an oval), and linear embankments. Some of
the more spectacular mounds are called "effigy mounds" and were
built between 1000 to 1300 years ago. They are called effigy mounds because
they take the form of recognizable animals such as birds, bears, water
spirits, deer, turtles, beaver, buffalo, canines, and other animals. There
are also a few rare examples of mounds being built in the human form.
What is inside the mounds?
The mounds probably served a number of purposes, but the most obvious
use was as a place of burial. Most mounds contain a single burial, although
some contain many burials, usually placed in a shallow pit. There are
usually structures within the mound that appear to have served purposes
related to burial of the dead, although what those precise purposes were
are unknown. Structures can include stone lined pits, layers of charcoal,
burnt soil, ash, and sometimes different colored soils from a variety
of locations near the mound.
Artifacts are rare in the mounds of Wisconsin. Usually items found in
mounds consist of everyday items such as projectile points and pottery.
Remember that mounds are legally protected burial sites. Please respect
these sacred sites.
How were the mounds built?
Some mounds were built by piling and packing dirt on the ground surface
into the desired shape. Other mounds were built on a prepared ground surface.
Care was taken to strip away the sod in the area where the mound would
be constructed. Yet other mounds were dug in the shape of an effigy and
then piled with dirt so that half of the mound is below the ground and
the other half is above.
Mounds were built in a variety of shapes and sizes. The largest known
hemispherical mound was built in Richland County, Wisconsin and was approximately
200 feet in diameter. Near to that mound was the largest recorded bird
effigy mound with a wingspan of nearly a quarter mile. Unfortunately,
both the bird and the hemispherical mound have been destroyed. The largest
extant bird effigy mound is located on the grounds of the Mendota State
Hospital on the north side of Lake Mendota in Madison, with a wingspan
of 624 feet. The longest recorded linear embankments were located along
Lake Monona and measured 700 feet long.
Where are mounds found?
In a general sense, Indian mounds were built throughout what is now the
United States. However, the highest concentration of effigy mounds can
be found in the Upper Midwest. While some effigies can be found in southeastern
Minnesota, northeastern Iowa, and northern Illinois, the majority of effigy
mounds were built in southern Wisconsin. Archaeological research indicates
that mounds are not spread over the landscape in a uniform distribution,
but rather there are clusters of mounds and mound groups. Clusters, sometimes
referred to as "Super Clusters," are found in the Madison area,
the Muscoda area, and the Prairie du Chien area.
Mounds are typically found situated on bluffs, ridges, bottom lands,
and shorelines near resource-rich areas that were able to support temporary
gatherings of large groups of people. Some mounds are found near important
natural features such as islands, marshes, springs, and caves.
Why did Indians stop making mounds?
Sometime between 900 and 1000 years ago, the people who built effigy
mounds ceased to do so. The reasons for this are uncertain, but may have
been related to changes in the way people perceived their place in society.
Mounds in general, however, continued to be made and used regularly until
the mid 1600s, when Indian societies were severely disrupted by the impacts
of the fur trade and the migrations of displaced Indian peoples from the
east. In a return to traditional ways, there are some modern examples
of mound building among Indian people of the Upper Midwest as a symbol
of continuity between the past and the present.
The shape of mounds - What does it mean?
Since the first time that effigy mounds were brought to the attention
of the public in 1838, there has been controversy over what the shapes
of mounds mean. Despite the fact that linear embankments and hemispherical
mounds do not appear to be effigies in the general sense of the word,
they also have been brought into the debate as well. Richard Taylor was
the first to publish an account of effigy mounds in Wisconsin. He concluded
that the animal-shaped mounds were representative of the clan emblems
that some Indian peoples used to  identify themselves.
A clan is a social group that claims a single common ancestor. Tribal
societies in Wisconsin used the clan system to structure their society.
For example, clan affiliation determines who can marry whom; what group
of people is responsible for enforcing tribal law; how people receive
names; and who conducts certain ceremonies. In other words, it provides
order and direction in many social and political settings. Among the Ho-Chunk,
clans have animal names, hence the assumption that earthen animal effigies
may represent membership of the deceased in a particular clan.
More recently, archaeologists have noted that the creatures depicted
in effigy form can be grouped into three categories; animals that fly,
those that walk the earth, and those that are associated with water. This
is significant because the belief system of many Indian peoples focus
on a division of their world into Upper and Lower Worlds. Birds and flying
creatures, such as Thunderbirds, are representative of the Upper World.
The Lower World is subdivided into earth and water, with the earth being
represented by bears, and the water by water spirits. Water spirits are
represented by long-tailed creatures that sometimes resemble panthers
or lizards or possess a combination of traits making them "composite" creatures.
Could it be then that the bird mounds are symbolic of the Upper World
and that the bear and panther mounds are symbolic of the Lower World?
We will never know for sure, but recent studies focusing on the distribution
of the different mound types shows that bird mounds are more prevalent
in western Wisconsin than in eastern Wisconsin. Furthermore, panther or
water spirit mounds are more common in eastern Wisconsin. If we consider
the geography of the western part of Wisconsin, it is dominated by tall
bluffs separated by deep valleys. In a certain sense, the bluff and hill
tops provide access to high ground that one might be able to associate
with the Upper World.
The geography of the eastern part of the state is known for its many
lakes, marshes, and streams, which could be interpreted as being associated
with the Lower World. Because the Upper World and Lower World are merely
divisions of the same world in the Indian world view, they exist in harmony
and balance. This may explain why mound groups like the Observatory Hill
Mound group include representatives of both the Lower World (the water-spirit-shaped
mound) and the Upper World (the bird-shaped mound).
It is possible that the mounds are both representations of clan membership
and are also symbolic of the world view of those that built them. It is
also possible that the mounds represent visual reminders of group territory.
Some have proposed that mounds represent markers on the landscape of certain
environmental resources. To complicate that matter, it may be possible
that the meanings of the shapes changed over the 300-to-400-year period
that effigy mounds were being built. As for the linear and hemispherical
mounds, it has been argued that they represent effigies of a type that
cannot be discerned today.
Finally, some people may argue that we will never know what the shape
of the mounds means--but perhaps that is not important. The builders of
these mounds took pains to create forms that are recognizable and if we
can never be sure of what the shapes mean, we can at least agree that
mound groups represent very special places on a culturally created landscape
that has been changed and shaped by its human inhabitants for 12,000 years.
How were mound locations selected?
Some people might argue that the answer to that question could only be
provided by the builders of the mounds. This is true in one sense, but
we can still ask the question and hope to answer it by looking at where
mounds are placed and what similarities those locations share with each
other.
A total of 11 mound groups are, or were, present on the University
of Wisconsin-Madison campus (including the Arboretum). When we look at
where the mounds are located, we find that 8 of the 11 groups
are on ridge tops overlooking Lake Mendota or Lake Wingra. The remaining
3 are located immediately adjacent to lake or marsh margins. From
this brief examination, it seems apparent that mound locations were chosen
for their proximity to water sources first, as all of the mounds are found
near water; and second, in elevated locations.
The elevated locations would have provided panoramic vistas of the surrounding
region. While we cannot judge what those vistas meant to the builders
of the mounds, we can say that modern peoples often experience a sense
of awe and wonder while enjoying a view that is aesthetically pleasing.
For instance, the mounds located in the Eagle Heights Woods are on the
highest natural spot in the entire Four Lakes area. While low-growing
shrubs and closely spaced trees currently impede the view towards the
lake, our best guess is that at the time the mounds were constructed the
view would have been unobstructed.
We cannot with certainty answer the question of why mounds were built
where they are, but we can say that humans share a certain sense of what
is aesthetically pleasing and that high places with unrestricted views
are commonly set aside for special activities, whether for burying the
dead, practicing one's spirituality, or taking a moment to enjoy the world
around us.
Why were mounds destroyed or changed?
Unfortunately, most of the mounds that were still visible on the landscape
at the time of European-American settlement have been destroyed or altered
from their original forms. Many mounds were plowed under or destroyed
during the construction of buildings and roads. Oddly, some mounds were
damaged or altered in the course of early archaeological investigations.
 The
mounds that you see today at the Willow Drive Mounds are a good example
of how the original contours of a mound can take new forms. As can be
seen in this 1885 site sketch (at left) prepared by T.H. Lewis, an archaeologist
and early mound surveyor, there are four mounds present.
The westernmost mound is in the shape of bird that likely represents
a goose with bent wings. Number 2 is a round or hemispherical mound.
Numbers 3 and 4 have been described as being "problematical" shapes,
but clearly they are effigies of some kind.
Charles
E. Brown, an archaeologist and former director of the Wisconsin Historical
Society, made a map of this same mound group on June 25, 1909,
along with modern features associated with the mounds.
As Brown's map indicates, sometime between 1885 and 1909, a turnaround
for a pleasure drive was constructed around the goose effigy. This drive
destroyed the westernmost extension of the goose (i.e. the "head and neck")
as well as the southernmost "wing." The tail of the goose was also
altered, and Mound 2 appears to have been almost entirely removed.
In 1935, Brown excavated the goose mound and in 1937 led a Depression
era Works Progress Administration (WPA) crew in the excavation of the
two so-called "problematical effigy mounds" to the east. The
goose mound contained a single burial. No artifacts were found associated
with the burial. In Mound 3 Brown and his crew unearthed the remains of
five individuals. Two burials were uncovered in Mound 4.
Brown and the WPA crew partially reconstructed the goose and the two
other effigies as they appear today. However, it is clear that the
reconstruction was not based on Lewis' notes, and the original outlines
of the mounds are lost to us forever.
The alteration of the Willow Drive Mounds provides us with an important
lesson as we try to interpret the meaning of mound shapes and alignments:
What we see on the landscape today may not be anything like what the original
mound builders constructed.
Are mounds currently protected from disturbance?
Mounds are considered to be human burial sites and are protected on all
non-federal lands in the state by Wisconsin's Burial
Sites Preservation law (Wis. Stats 157.70) and Wisconsin's Field Archaeology Act (Wis. Stats
44.47). On Federal or Tribal lands, burials sites are protected by the
Archaeological Resources Protection Act and the Native American Graves
Protection and Repatriation Act.
Professional ethics in the archaeological community continue to evolve.
Most archaeologists now assert that mound sites that are not directly
threatened should be left intact for future generations. This allows for
the application of yet-to-be developed technologies that may allow for
better recovery of data and in the end, better interpretations of the
past.
Archaeological research on public lands requires a special permit from
the Wisconsin Historical Society. Collecting artifacts on public property
without a permit is not allowed.
< Previous Page
Read these archaeology reports for a more detailed discussion of the
UW-Madison's ancient past:
(Note: The 300-acre Lakeshore Nature Preserve represents about one-third
of the total area on the main UW-Madison campus. Many, but not all,
of the archaeological sites on the main campus can be found in the
Preserve. Some sites discussed in archaeological reports (and displayed
on the Preserve's interactive map) may reside outside of the formal
boundaries of the Preserve.)
 George
Christiansen III, "2004
Archaeological Investigation on the UW-Madison Campus" June
2005, Great Lakes Archaeological Research Center: Project 04.005. This
is the most comprehensive review of the UW-Madison archaeological record
ever completed. Field research performed for this project in 2004 located
13 new archaeological sites across the Preserve. This report includes
a detailed overview of the presence of Native Americans in Wisconsin
dating back to the post-glacial period.
George
Christiansen III, "Eagle Heights Woods, UW-Madison Campus,
Dane County Wisconsin: Results of a Phase 1 Archaeological Survey" Nov.
2001, Archaeological Research Inc. Reports of Investigations No. 78
This report describes the results of archaeological testing in the vicinity
of the mound group atop Eagle Heights. A detailed discussion of the publicly
accessible pleasure drives, built by George Raymer in the late 1880s to
reach the Eagle Heights Mound Group, is also included.
George
Christiansen III, "Picnic
Point, UW-Madison Campus, Dane County Wisconsin: Results of a Phase
1 Archaeological Survey" July 2001,
Archaeological Research Inc. Reports of Investigations No. 64. There
are six distinct archaeological sites on the Picnic Point peninsula—including
six extant burial mounds—making this area one of the richest
archaeological sectors on the UW-Madison campus. This report details
the results of extensive shovel test surveys performed in 2001, which
significantly enhanced our understanding of habitation activities
at Picnic Point.
Amy
Rosebrough, “National
Register of Historic Places Registration Form-Observatory Hill Mound
Group” 2003. The national significance of the two extant
effigy mounds on the slope of Observatory Hill DA 571 is documented
in this official application to the National Register of Historic Places. The
National Park Service added the site to the register in 2004. PLEASE
NOTE: This is a very large 7 Mb pdf file. Opens in a new window, but
may take several minutes to open even with high-speed internet.
Amy
L. Rosebrough, "A
Phase I Archaeological Survey of Muir Knoll, University of Wisconsin-Madison
, Dane County, Wisconsin," 2003. Madison WI:
Office of the State Archaeologist, Wisconsin Historical Society. This
report documents the presence of a Native American archaeological
site on Muir Knoll, DA1208.
Kenneth
Karstens and Lynn Rusch, "Results
of the Archaeological Reconnaissance Survey for the University of Wisconsin
Crew House, Madison Wisconsin" Midwest
Archaeological Consulting, Research Report No. 28. As part of preliminary
planning for siting a new crew house facility, a reconnaissance archaeological
survey (Phase I) was conducted at Willow Creek Woods in 1995. The research
revealed extensive intact archaeological features. Additional survey
work (Phase II) at this site in 2004 confirmed the significance of this
site, and determined that the site may be eligible for inclusion on
the National Register of Historic Places.
Charles
E. Brown, "Prehistoric
Indian Monuments on the University Grounds." The
Wisconsin Alumni Magazine. 15.9 (June, 1914): 383-389. Charles
E. Brown, a tireless advocate for the preservation and study of Indian
mounds, provides an overview of these features on the University of
Wisconsin-Madison campus. (2 Mb)
Text and photo credits, page 2:
- FAQ text by George Christiansen, III. Nov 1, 2006.
- Mound group survey drawing: Jenkins Survey and Design, Inc. 2004 Proj #04C1648.Iphoto.
- Site sketch of Willow Drive mound group. T.H. Lewis, 1885.
- Photo credits: Second Point Woods in winter.
Wiliiam Cronon, 2005. When were mounds built? image: Cathie Bruner, 2006.
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